Eat Lovingly: Christian Ethics for Sustainable and Just Food Systems

What we choose to eat impacts not only our health, but also contributes positively or negatively towards sustainability and justice. How food is produced determines its impact on environmental sustainability  through pollution, soil erosion, ground water depletion, and biodiversity conservation. A food systems lens looks beyond production to consider the complex social issues linking food to our tables, such as labor conditions (on farms, at processing plants, retail facilities, and restaurants), international trade, access to fresh food (spatially and economically), farm subsidies, cultural aspects of food, and more. Transforming food systems for health, sustainability, and justice will require advocacy work, agricultural innovation, and social movements, all of which require ethical thinking about food and where it comes from. At the same time, seemingly inconsequential everyday food choices can have cumulative effects that support food system transformation.

Christ taught that the greatest commandments are to love God and to love our neighbor as ourselves.¹ As Christians, we aim to live out these commandments in all aspects of our lives for our own good and for the glory of our Savior. To eat lovingly means to strive to ensure that the side-effects of our consumption of food show honor, respect, and care for God, self, others, and creation. However, many Christians are unsure how to eat in a way that is not only healthy, but also supportive of sustainability and justice. This paper provides a synthesis of principles and practices from the Christian faith tradition informing how ethical eating practices can demonstrate love across five relationships: (1) with God, (2) with self, (3) with community, (4) with “others”, and (5) with the environment. It weaves together concepts from environmental stewardship, Catholic Social Teaching, sustainable food systems, and healthy eating to guide individual decision-making in support of food system transformation.

Defining Sustainable and Just Food Systems

At its most basic level, the term sustainability refers to something being able to continue into perpetuity. Superficially, Midwest agriculture seems to meet this criterion since some farmland has been producing crops for over 150 years. However, a deeper exploration of the issues suggests that farming as we know
it must change. A farm cannot sustain its food production if its soil is eroding (the Midwest has been losing nearly 2mm of topsoil per year for the past 150 years² ) or if the water source for irrigation is becoming depleted (groundwater levels in Kansas fell by 2 feet on average in 2023 and the Ogallala aquifer is projected to run dry in 50 years or less³ ). On the other hand, many Midwest farms are not threatened by erosion and do not depend on limited groundwater. The lack of sustainability on such farms becomes more apparent when the problem is framed beyond the farm boundaries, such as at the watershed level (where fertilizers and pesticides are depleting biodiversity and degrading downstream uses) or at the global level (agriculture was responsible for 10% of United States greenhouse gas emissions in 2021⁴ ).

A common framework for sustainability is that of three overlapping circles: the place where ecological integrity, economic viability, and social acceptability intersect. The importance of all three can be illustrated in the example of farmers considering agricultural innovations, such as cover crops, which are planted not for harvest but to sequester carbon, reduce erosion, build soil fertility, and reduce the need for herbicides and pesticides. Farmers are unlikely to go to the extra expense and effort of using cover crops if the only benefits are long-term and for the broader environment. Cover crop systems may be great ecologically, but they cannot be considered truly “sustainable” until farmers can see that they are also financially feasible and socially accepted.

Social acceptability, however, varies greatly across stakeholders and does not go deep enough to ensure fair relationships between actors in the food system. Justice in its most simple form is when everyone gets what they deserve. Justice in the food system requires ensuring a fair and impartial distribution of the benefits and burdens associated with the production, distribution, and consumption of food. This ideal stands in stark contrast to the reality of a globalized food system dominated by a few large corporations, whose concentration of power enables them to externalize their costs (not have them included in the market price) to the detriment of the environment and the poor.⁵ One study estimates that food prices reflect only a third of the total costs to society from its production, such as environmental costs (from pollution) and costs to human life (from underpaid workers, illness, and premature death).⁶ Consolidation enables powerful companies to lobby for policies that keep these costs externalized. In 2017, ten multi-national companies controlled 90% of the global food system⁷ and four retailers sold 60% of United States groceries.⁸ Consumers are generally unaware of this due to the variety of brands which are actually owned by a small handful of corporations (for example, in 2018 the largest four companies in each sector had 82% of soft drink sales, 63% of all salty snack sales, and 58% of all bread sales⁹ ). These massive food corporations have optimized strategies to provide cheap and convenient food, but in terms of ethics, they only respond to significant shifts in consumer demands. Consolidation in the food system also creates risks for society, as evidenced by the nationwide 2022 infant formula shortages in the United States, caused by one major plant being shut down due to high bacteria levels.¹⁰ Author, poet, and essayist Wendell Berry eloquently summarizes this issue, asserting that,

We have neglected to understand that we cannot be free if our food and its sources are controlled by someone else. The condition of the passive consumer of food is not a democratic condition. One reason to eat responsibly is to live free.¹¹

Note that he is not saying that we all need to grow all of our own food to live free. Rather Berry is making the case for responsible eating that supports a more diversified and local food system that maintains the locus of power closer to the consumer, thereby providing more freedom.

Thus, sustainable and just food systems refer to the entire range of processes from farm to table being able to continue without degrading the natural resources used for agriculture (such as soil and water) or causing harm to ecosystems or human health (e.g., through pollutants), and without undermining social systems or causing oppression, all while still being economically viable. This is a tall task, but one that we can contribute towards with our daily food choices.

Food Choices Contribute to Food System Transformation

Everyone who eats from the modern food system has some responsibility for the problems associated with how food is produced and distributed. Through globalized economies, individuals are connected in a convoluted way with a wide array of people working along the supply chain to provide the food on their plates. The local food movement in the United States is creating an alternative system that resists the unjust power imbalances from consolidation and globalization, while promoting ethical food practices and cultural alternatives to the industrial food system.¹² The collective impact of individual food choices has profound cumulative effects on global and local issues such as climate change, soil erosion, water shortages, toxic chemical pollution, and endangered species. For example, as economies have grown, more people are increasing meat consumption, thereby requiring more land and water to feed the same population, while also producing more pollutants.¹³ In fact, one study found that dietary changes towards plant-based food would have more environmental impact than converting conventional farming to organic systems and changing grain-fed beef to grass-fed beef.¹⁴ Individuals concerned about the problems associated with modern industrialized food systems and wanting to contribute towards transformation can “vote with their fork” by making careful food choices that nudge the system towards sustainability and justice.

In the following sections, this essay organizes ethical analysis of food choices by the broken relationships with God, self, others, and creation that can be transformed into loving relationships for the greater worship of God. For example, I have personally found gardening and preparing local food to be an area of my life that draws me closer to God as my sustainer, connects me with the beauty of creation, helps me care for my body, and puts me in deeper relationships with my family, neighbors, and the diverse array of cultures I am blessed to interact with. I hope that readers adhering to a similar faith tradition will feel strengthened in their theological commitments as they strive to apply their faith to the particular aspect of eating in their life.

Readers who do not share the author’s faith tradition can use this overview to connect more meaningfully with those in the Christian faith working towards sustainable and just food systems. This could be in the form of philosophical conversations about motivations (e.g., how perspectives on what is wrong with the world impact how we address it) or even in challenging people to live out their faith traditions (e.g., a non-Christian encouraging a Christian who is dismissing social or environmental problems to consider how their faith applies to those issues). Stating this ethical framework explicitly can reveal the basis for shared values and concerns across belief systems in working to improve food systems.

Christian Food Ethics

The Christian worldview sees a broken relationship between humans and God as the root cause of all that is wrong with the world. From Genesis 3 (the story of eating the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden) we can see that the immediate consequence of original sin includes brokenness in humanity’s relationship with God (hiding from Him), with self (shame of nakedness), with others (Adam and Eve blaming each other), and with creation (thorns and thistles hinder food production).¹⁵ Thus, the world’s problems can be seen as manifestations of these persistently broken relationships.

The direct effects from original sin on food production are presented in Genesis 3:17–19 (ESV) which says,

cursed is the ground because of you;
in pain you shall eat of it all the days of your life;
thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you;
and you shall eat the plants of the field.
By the sweat of your face
you shall eat bread,
till you return to the ground.

Wendell Berry eloquently argues that many of the social and environmental problems from industrial and chemical forms of agriculture stem from attempts to avoid this curse and reduce the hard work of food production. “We have tried to escape the sweat and sorrow promised in Genesis—only to find that, in order to do so, we must forswear love and excellence, health and joy.”¹⁶

Instead of trying to escape the effects of sin, the Bible calls Christians to collaborate with God in reconciling the broken relationships. God “through Christ reconciled us to himself and gave us the ministry of reconciliation . . . entrusting to us the message of reconciliation. Therefore, we are ambassadors for Christ, God making his appeal through us.”¹⁷ This ministry of reconciliation is not limited to “saving souls for heaven” but is holistic and relates even to food and farming.

In the sacrament of Communion (i.e., the Eucharist), Christians share bread and wine together to ritually remember the reconciliation from Christ’s death and resurrection. Colossians says that “God was pleased . . . through him (Christ) to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross.”¹⁸ From the context, the reconciliation of “all things” refers to the entire created order. Christian food ethics can be seen as “Eucharistic table manners” with faith impacting food choices by demonstrating justice, sustainability, and gratitude.¹⁹

Based on this overview of sin and reconciliation, how should Christians eat and what type of farming should they support? The Bible does not directly answer this question. Unlike many other world religions, most forms of Christianity lack food restrictions beyond occasional fasting.²⁰ Jesus told his disciples to eat whatever was set before them.²¹ Peter had a dramatic vision explicitly telling him not to consider any food unclean.²² The early church was a mixed community of Jews and non-Jews that wrestled with how to harmonize Jewish food restrictions with the new faith. Paul wrote that Christians should eat anything from the market without raising questions on the ground of conscience.²³

Instead of specific directives about what foods are permissible, Christian ethicists use biblical principles to consider the moral implications of food choices, which are not universal but specific to a given time and place. For example, an in-depth argument for Christian vegetarianism states that the conditions in industrial animal agriculture do not allow the livestock to reflect the glory of the God who created them by living out their natural behaviors.²⁴ Others have argued that industrial livestock production systems require wasteful amounts of water and land (for the crops fed to those livestock), resulting in excessive pollution both from nutrients and greenhouse gases, and are a threat to human health through the overuse of antibiotics and the high potential for zoonotic diseases.²⁵ Thus, under these circumstances, Christians “have strong faith-based reason to avoid consuming” such animals with the motivation of bringing greater glory to God.²⁶

Now, I am not suggesting that every serious Christian in the United States should be vegetarian. Instead, I am arguing that people with a committed Christian faith should consider how to glorify God through their food choices. Individual factors will influence one’s conclusions, including one’s ability to access ethically raised meat, one’s ability to prepare healthy alternatives, and so on. Noah Toly, in his work on Christian ethics and environmental politics, provides a sophisticated argument for humility about ethical positions for complex real- world situations. He points out that there are no self-justifying choices that one can make and claim to be righteous. Instead, there are always tradeoffs between non-trivial goods; we all have “dirty hands.”²⁷ This is particularly true when deciding what type of food system should be prioritized. Encouraging more production of local fruits and vegetables in the Midwest may increase pesticide application. Focusing on reducing food miles might save emissions for air transport but reduce economic incentives for sustainable agriculture in developing countries where poverty is harshest, and biodiversity is at greatest risk. Navigating these ethical dilemmas means deciding what aspects of a better world should be prioritized. Ultimately, this will require individuals making educated choices, reflecting on the consequences, and adjusting as they learn and observe.

Personally, most days I fail to live out the ethical guidelines I am proposing in this paper. I grow fruits and vegetables, but not nearly enough to supply my family’s needs. I select seasonal and local food frequently but still enjoy fresh produce from the supermarket in the winter. I try to minimize the animal products I consume but rarely buy organic animal products due to cost. Despite these failures, I find it meaningful to keep striving towards better honoring God in how I eat. According to orthodox Christian faith, morality is from God and can bring one closer to God, but the nature of sin is that humans are unable to live a completely moral life. Christians should strive towards a moral life not to earn God’s favor but out of worship for the grace they received through Christ’s atoning death and resurrection.

The remainder of this essay explores specific ethical considerations for food and agriculture, organized by the broken relationships from Genesis 3 (summarized in Table 1). For each of the relationships, principles for reconciliation related to food and agriculture are presented with practical steps to live those out. Due to the wide array of topics touched on, the details provided here are limited but references are provided for exploring them more thoroughly. The practices listed are not a blueprint but rather aim to spark critical reflection on how to “eat lovingly,” that is to show love to God, oneself, one’s community, others, and creation through food choices. As it says in Colossians 3:10 (ESV), “And above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect harmony.”

Table 1. Principles and practices for demonstrating love through food choices categorized by relationship

Food choices and a Loving Relationship with God

Throughout the Bible, God is lauded as the provider of food for His people both through miraculous means (e.g., manna during the exodus, Jesus’s multiplying loaves and fishes) and through the natural processes underlying food production. For example, in Acts, Paul described God as “giving you rains from heaven and fruitful seasons, satisfying your hearts with food and gladness.”²⁸ On the other hand, drought, pests, and plant diseases are ways that God reminds people in the Old Testament how much they depend on His providence, such as in Amos, where God says “I withheld rain from you . . . but you did not return to me. . . . I struck you with blight and mildew . . . yet you did not return to me.”²⁹

A right relationship with God includes acknowledging one’s dependence, such as by regularly asking for His provision and thanking God for what is available. Jesus commanded His disciples to pray “Give us this day our daily bread,”³⁰ and exemplified giving thanks before meals,³¹ which was encouraged by Paul in his letters to the churches.³² We can avoid taking food for granted by recognizing the wonderful mystery of living things dying so that humans can have sustenance, a circle of life that God uses to satisfy physical bodies and delight the senses with a tangible, daily form of His goodness.³³

One practice that can help us be more attentive to God’s provision is eating seasonally to stimulate awareness of how food production depends on temperature, rainfall, day length, and pollination. By not taking His provision for granted, this mindfulness and thankfulness can draw Christians into a deeper intimacy with God. The typical seasonality of annual crops in the North American climate is as follows: young leaves and buds in spring (spinach, asparagus), then mature leaves and flower heads (romaine, broccoli), followed by tender fruits in mid-summer (cucumbers, tomatoes), large hard-skinned fruits in fall (winter squash and melons), and root crops just before winter.³⁴ Eating produce in its season can also contribute to gratitude and praise as consumers enjoy fresh produce when its flavor is at its best.

Well-off Christians may find it harder to be grateful to God for food if they feast daily.³⁵ Thus, a third practice here is balancing feasting and fasting. Voluntary simplicity, changing towards a simpler daily diet, such as reducing meat, can increase appreciation when “feasting.” Fasting from food is common in many faith traditions, and in Christianity it is expected,³⁶ though not regularly practiced by many Protestants. Christian fasting aims to help people reorient their lives away from the daily pursuit of bodily satisfaction and remember that it is God who sustains our physical bodies. When Christians are fasting, they often take mealtimes to remember deeper needs, including worship and a right relationship with God. Some suggestions for those new to the practice include the following: start small, plan what to do instead of eating, consider how fasting will affect others, and try partial fasting, which means abstaining from only a specific type of food.³⁷ However one chooses to fast, the focus should be on drawing closer to God.

Christians can use eating to strengthen their relationship with God by pausing to give thanks before eating, recognizing His provision through eating seasonally and regularly practicing some form of fasting.

Food Choices and a Loving Relationship with Oneself

Craving sugars and fats is a biological adaptation to reduce chances of starvation in extreme situations, but with rising global prosperity, these appetites are contributing to a tremendous burden from chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Critiques of market-driven over-indulgence in the food system define the problem as capitalism in the absence of sufficient moral or regulatory guard rails.³⁸ The cheap food policy in the United States (whereby production of staples are subsidized and over-production is encouraged) ostensibly makes it more affordable for everyone to have enough food. However, an over-abundance of corn has led to (1) widespread use of high fructose corn syrup in foods, contributing to increased diabetes and (2) industrialized corn-fed animal production, making meat fattier and cheaper, contributing to heart disease. Both are highlighted in the documentary King Corn.³⁹

Consumers’ food-related health concerns have led to incredible growth in the dieting and nutrition supplement industries, which ironically are often contributing to a mental health crisis. People trying to reduce their weight compare themselves to “ideal body types” and tend to think worse of themselves (contributing to depression) and are more worried about how to achieve that deal (contributing to anxiety)⁴⁰ Commercial interests may intentionally create discontentment to sell their solutions, or they may unintentionally perpetuate the cultural constructs around body image.⁴¹

The most glaring links between food and mental health are evidenced through eating disorders. Risk factors for disordered eating include exposure and pressure towards “thinness” (primarily for women, or towards muscularity for men) and personality traits such as perfectionism and negative emotionality.⁴² Some have argued that conservative religious communities may have higher risk of eating disorders due to the psychological impacts of a community identifying itself as counter to the secular world, stating that “in the identity forming processes of religious communities, the struggle for the definition of boundaries is played out on the bodies of those who are particularly susceptible to anxiety about their physical selves.”⁴³

Despite such challenges, the Christian faith provides two assertions to counter the trends towards unhealthy diets and mental health problems. First, the body is seen as a temple of the Holy Spirit, which provides a strong motivation for choosing nutritious foods and restraining oneself from excessive self-indulgence. Second, humans are seen as God’s children, created in the “image of God” regardless of appearance, or even functionality. With these assertions, a clear way to honor God is to accept the body God gave you and care for it well through eating nutritious foods, consuming an appropriate amount, and having an active lifestyle with sufficient sleep.

Caring for the body’s health through food requires learning the basics of nutrition. Special care needs to be taken with diets that prohibit entire food groups. Severe food restrictions when dieting can backfire by triggering feelings of deprivation that lead to binge eating.⁴⁴ Also, for one’s mental health, it is not recommended to categorize foods with moral terms (hamburgers are bad, ice cream is sinful). The shame or guilt associated with consuming such foods contributes to dysfunctional eating.⁴⁵ Thus, a Christian ethic related to food choices should avoid morally labeling or prohibiting specific foods.

Recent attention has focused on how the gut microbiome impacts not only digestion, but also has links to allergies, immunity, and a wide range of mental health conditions. The science of analyzing claims of specific foods as gut microbiome irritants or enhancers (including expensive probiotics and supplements) is lagging, making it difficult for consumers to separate fact from conjecture. Despite these challenges, one of the clearest dietary changes to support gut microbes is to increase dietary fiber through the consumption of whole grains, legumes, and vegetables,⁴⁶ which has many nutritional benefits beyond the gut microbiome.

The health benefits from having a more plant-based diet are scientifically robust,⁴⁷ and can contribute towards a reconciled relationship with self. Plant-based eating not only strengthens the gut microbiome, but provides vitamins, fiber, and antioxidants, and can reduce the likelihood of excessive consumption of fatty, salty, and sugary foods. The Christian group that best highlights the benefits of plant-based eating are the Seventh-day Adventists, over 50% of whom are vegan, vegetarian, or nearly vegetarian⁴⁸ leading to extraordinary longevity outcomes. This is best highlighted by the Adventists of Loma Linda, California, identified as a “Blue Zone,” one of five regions in the world with the highest longevity and quality of life.⁴⁹ Adventists do not require vegetarianism as part of their church beliefs, but rather embrace a plant-based diet to “nourish their new identity as a special people.”⁵⁰

Many people think of organic food as inherently healthier than conventional food, but there is mixed research on the subject. The certification for organic requires that the farm not use synthetic pesticides or fertilizers, which may reduce the amount of pesticide residues on the food, potentially reducing cancer risks, among other pesticide-related health hazards. This is most likely true for foods listed as the “Dirty Dozen,” which can be prioritized for purchasing organic to avoid health risks.⁵¹ Other foods, such as those listed on the “Clean Fifteen,” are unlikely to have pesticide residues when you eat them, often because of where and when the pesticides are applied.⁵² Due to this complexity, and due to the difficulty of linking pesticide residue consumption with health problems, studies comparing health outcomes across people who eat more or less organic food have not found a significant health benefit from organic diets, even though organic produce was found to have less pesticides and higher levels of antioxidants.⁵³

The risk of serious complications from diet-related chronic diseases increases dramatically with body mass index. Thus, another important facet of healthy eating is to consume an appropriate quantity of calories for one’s body size and activity level to avoid putting on extra weight. This needs to be done while celebrating the diversity of body types, as each is made in the image of an all-glorious Creator. Doing so would provide a powerful antidote to the psychological identity issues arising from the ideal body image.

An over-controlling approach to eating a healthy amount of food (such as counting every calorie) can take joy out of eating and contribute to disordered eating. In contrast, many suggest increased mindfulness to the body’s signals for when to stop eating. Research on longevity in Okinawa found that elders at the beginning of the meal recite a Confucian adage, “hara hachi bu,” which reminds them to stop eating when they feel 80% full.⁵⁴ Similarly, two of the principles in the “anti-diet approach”, Intuitive Eating, are to “Honor your Hunger” and to “Feel your Fullness,” which means learning to trust your body so that you can eat what you are hungry for, and pause in the middle of the meal to evaluate how hungry you still are.⁵⁵

Physical movement is an important component of maintaining a healthy body weight and both Blue Zones and Intuitive Eating encourage finding natural ways to move more in daily life, instead of sporadic excessive exercise.⁵⁶ Growing one’s own food can improve health by encouraging natural movement through gardening. Gardening can be therapeutic and there are significant mental health benefits to being outside in nature⁵⁷ (or having houseplants⁵⁸ ). Furthermore, gardening can also be an enjoyable way to have low-cost and better tasting produce. Many cities have community garden plots that can be rented cheaply by residents who do not have a yard for a garden. Rooftop gardens, patio gardens, and even growing herbs in a windowsill are all options for having some involvement in one’s own food production.

Food Choices and Loving Relationships with Community

Ethical eating requires considering how food production relates to a wide array of social issues. Human relationships can be imperfectly divided into two categories: relationships with community (those similar to oneself: family, neighbors, etc.) and relationships with “others” (those who are perceived as fundamentally different, perhaps socio-economically or culturally). This section focuses on community and the next focuses on broader relationships with “others.”

As Christians wrestle with ethical eating, they need to make sure their choices do not hurt close relationships due to varying perspectives on what is right or allowed. When Jewish food restrictions collided with the feasting of Roman polytheism, the early church had to grapple with the issue of how to eat together. “If your brother is grieved by what you eat, you are no longer walking in love. . . . Do not for the sake of food, destroy the work of God.”⁵⁹ Christians need to consider loving those around them as they live out their food choices.

One practice towards reconciled relationships through food is family dining. Regularly eating together as a family at a table has been shown to correlate with improved health through better diets.⁶⁰ Another study found frequency of family meals to be associated with reduced chances of youth engaging in high-risk behaviors.⁶¹ Interestingly, serving and consuming fruits and vegetables tends to be reduced if the television is on during the meal.⁶² These correlations do not explain how or why they are linked, but they suggest that how families structure their daily interactions during mealtimes has both social and nutritional consequences.

Another practice for reconciled relationships through food is to develop or strengthen traditions of community gatherings centered on food. For example, as faith communities and neighborhoods, we can use meals to strengthen relationships through church potlucks and block parties.⁶³ However, to effectively show love to all, this needs to be done with sensitivity, accommodating for food restrictions, and not judging others for what they do or do not eat.

A third practice for loving relationships is to share food generously, which models God’s bounteous provision. Practical implementation of this principle could include bringing meals to others, cooking together, and sharing food and recipes with neighbors and co-workers. Generosity also has the potential to counteract the downsides of food as a commodity. Gardeners can freely share produce with neighbors, food forests can be planted to line streets with public fruit trees, and community gardening can bring people together with meaningful work.

Food Choices and Loving Relationships with “Others”

As Christians work to make God’s will be done on earth, there needs to be just and fair relationships across the food system. The modern food system tends to hide who is involved in producing and processing food. Corporations exert pressure to have food produced as cheaply as possible, creating opportunities for exploitation of workers. It is oppression if cheap food is resulting in modern forms of slavery while also externalizing costs to the environment through pollution, which is harming people “downstream” who may not benefit from the food produced. The biblical prophets have much to say about oppression of workers by those who live in opulence. “Look! The wages you failed to pay the workers who mowed your fields are crying out against you. The cries of the harvesters have reached the ears of the Lord Almighty.”⁶⁴ The principles from Catholic Social Teaching provide a useful synthesis of biblical teaching on complex social issues,⁶⁵ applied in Table 2 to food systems.

Table 2. Application of Catholic Social Teaching to a more sustainable and just food system

One practice for reconciling relationships with “others” through ethical eating is to buy food that supports just and fair relationships. This requires awareness of which products and brands to avoid and which to select to support human rights. Food corporations may respond to sufficient consumer outrage and boycotting, such as on-going efforts to reduce child labor associated with chocolate⁶⁶ and deforestation associated with palm oil.⁶⁷ Fairtrade is one example of a certification scheme that ensures higher pay and better working conditions in low-income countries for globally traded goods, such as coffee and chocolate.⁶⁸ As participants in a globalized food economy, all consumers have some responsibility for ensuring they make an informed vote with each purchase.

Another practice is purchasing directly from a farmer to develop closer relationships with those who grow food.⁶⁹ Less than 2% of United States families farm or ranch,⁷⁰ down from 47.7% in 1870.⁷¹ Nevertheless, opportunities for consumers to buy directly from producers are increasing and diversifying across developed countries as demand grows for fresh local food. Farmers markets tend to be more than just a place to buy produce, but rather social events with music, children’s activities, and other traditions that help build community, as well as attracting people to the market. Connecting with farmers is also possible through buying a “share” through a Community Supported Agriculture farm that delivers a box every week or two of whatever is available for harvest.⁷² Harvesting your own fruits or vegetables from a local farm that offers “U-pick” not only develops consumers’ relationships with producers but can also help increase appreciation for the work that goes into harvesting food.

A third practice for reconciled relationships is using food to cross social and cultural barriers. Sharing food is a key facet of cross-cultural learning and can deepen relationships we already have. For example, many international students are eager to share holiday meals with local families to understand the host culture. Local churches can work with universities to offer such opportunities of cross-cultural exchange. Food can also provide the avenue to create new cross-cultural relationships. When done respectfully, exploring diverse types of food at restaurants, grocery stores, and farm stands can lead to cross-cultural friendships. In many United States cities cross-cultural eating can even support recent immigrants, many of whom create jobs growing, cooking, and serving foods from their homeland.

Another form of cross-cultural relationships related to food and agriculture are the “Growing Projects” organized by Growing Hope Globally.⁷³ This nonprofit works with churches and their communities in the United States to use agriculture to raise money for international development projects, which are implemented by Christian relief and development organizations. The local agricultural projects often have a harvest celebration where community members celebrate what they have grown or raised and learn more about the international agriculture project the funds will support. Occasionally, Growing Hope Globally is able to bring project managers and farmers from those countries to such events, bringing the cross-cultural discussions about food and agriculture even deeper.

Food Choices and a Loving Relationship with Creation

In 1967 Lynn White, Jr. wrote an essay blaming the Judeo-Christian worldview for modernity’s ecological disaster, arguing that destruction of nature has been justified by the belief that God gave humans dominion over creation.⁷⁴ Christian ecologists responded by articulating a biblical view of dominion as stewardship, which highlights God as the owner of all creation and humans with responsibility to care for it.⁷⁵ Recent scholarship from Christian authors criticizes the concept of “stewardship” as being too easily coopted by those with an individualistic, economic, and anthropocentric agenda.⁷⁶ An alternative concept is Christian earthkeeping, which broadens human responsibility to be collective, preservationist, and ecocentric.⁷⁷

Either way, Christians clearly have a biblical duty to care for agricultural land so that it maintains its fruitfulness. The land belongs to God, and He will hold humans responsible. If “eating is an agricultural act,”⁷⁸ then everyone who eats can make choices that support farmers’ care of the land.

The first practice towards a reconciled relationship with creation through food is to support farmers who steward the land. Direct sales from producers known to farm responsibly is ideal, but purchasing environmentally certified items, such as USDA certified organic, is simpler since they are available at most grocery stores. Third-party certifications for sustainable food products (e.g., Biodynamic, Rainforest Alliance, Dolphin Friendly, Regenerative Organic, Soil Carbon Initiative, etc.) are proliferating, which can cause confusion. To avoid “greenwashing,” consumers need to look deeper than the name and logo, investigating how well the criteria for certification result in meaningful environmental benefits.

Another practice to care for creation through food choices is to reduce food waste. Over 30% of all food in the United States is wasted,⁷⁹ which is not only a misuse of the resources for food production but also a significant source of the potent greenhouse gas methane, which is produced as the food breaks down anaerobically in landfills. Small actions like planning meals before shopping and taking only what you plan to eat at buffets can reduce food waste, while also saving money. Backyard composting is another way to reduce methane emissions from landfills with the side benefit of creating richer soil to garden in.

A third important practice is supporting the ethical care of livestock. Christian ethicists have been wrestling with the moral dilemmas of industrial animal agriculture since at least the 1970s.⁸⁰ A few Bible verses explicitly urge care of animals⁸¹ but the broader concept is that human dominion over creation⁸² should be characterized by the same traits as godly kingship: mercy, justice, and servant leadership.⁸³ A Christian ethic on livestock should consider if and how the animals use their unique natural behaviors to praise the Creator. It should oppose treating animals as mere machines optimized for human consumption.

Again, third-party certifications provide information to consumers and the Animal Welfare Institute provides a guide for many of the labels on the market.⁸⁴ The details for each certification are critical and one may not find a suitable and trustworthy label for aligning consumption with one’s ethical persuasions about livestock. In such cases abstaining from animal products is a reasonable response, one which comes with significant environmental benefits such as reduced consumption of water and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

Conclusion

Any attempt to suggest practical steps towards complex ethical decisions will have limitations. This paper emphasizes individual decision-making, but the food system is embedded in political and economic systems that perpetuate inequalities and the degradation of the environment. The poorest in society are unable to afford the high prices typically associated with foods from just and sustainable sources or are often unable to dedicate the time it can take to produce and prepare local and seasonal foods. There was 12.8% of households in the United States experiencing food insecurity in 2022, meaning 17 million people at some point were uncertain of having enough food due to lack of money.⁸⁵ Many millions more may be food secure but feel unable to prioritize extra spending for more ethical food choices. They may live in areas with limited options for local or fresh foods. Some of the practices above cost nothing or can even save money, though all require extra effort. For many people, reallocating money towards ethical eating is possible if they are convinced that doing so is of greater value than where they are currently using their discretionary income. This paper aims to highlight the personal, spiritual, social, and environmental benefits of ethical food choices. Even if the practices stated above are not an option for the economically marginalized, the principles behind them for each relationship (see the first column of Table 1) are relevant across levels of socio-economic status, cultures and agro-ecologies.

Offering specific ethical suggestions also creates the risk of people feeling they now have license to judge the food choices of others. However, ethical decision-making is a personal choice that individuals need to make for themselves based on their own convictions. The apostle Paul’s letter to the Romans about food choices summarizes this well:

One person believes he may eat anything, while the weak person eats only vegetables. Let not the one who eats despise the one who abstains, and let not the one who abstains pass judgment on the one who eats, for God has welcomed him. Who are you to pass judgment on the servant of another? It is before his own master that he stands or falls. And he will be upheld, for the Lord is able to make him stand.⁸⁶

Of course, convictions develop through social interactions as people support and challenge each other. So, people should be open with each other about their convictions, while also recognizing how the complexity of the food system gives good cause for humility.

Individual food choices based on ethical reflection is just one piece in a broader set of actions needed to transform food systems, including advocacy work, scientific research, and social movements to support agroecological farming systems. One United States-based bipartisan Christian group exemplifying how to address food issues through policy is Bread for the World, which engages in educating churches and individuals about legislation that can impact hunger locally and globally.⁸⁷ To avoid being paralyzed by complex problems, one can take small steps towards the distant ideal, advocate for systemic change, and join with others to make a collective impact locally and globally.

Ethical living requires being aware of the links between one’s actions and their impacts on others. Our daily decisions about what to eat and the underlying processes of food production have cumulative impacts on our environment, society, health, and spiritual well-being. Progress towards a sustainable, just, healthy, and God-honoring food system is a formidable task. It will require synergistic efforts in science for sustainable agriculture, policy to address injustices, and social movements to transform the food system. However, a prerequisite to all of these are ethical frameworks to guide and motivate.

This paper outlines principles and practices for ethical eating in support of a transformed food system. Adhering to these guidelines is extremely challenging in the culture and economy of the developed world. An evangelical Christian perspective on these ethical guidelines need not result in a burden of guilt or shame. Instead, with a focus on the undeserved grace received through Christ, the believer becomes eager to strive towards progress in living ethically, first as an expression of worship and thanksgiving, and next as yearning for and ushering in the kingdom of God. May we all find joy as we seek to better love God, love our neighbors, honor our bodies, and steward creation in all aspects of our lives, including our eating. In short, may we experience the satisfaction of seeking to eat lovingly.

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